Researching Culture:
The Social and Cultural Significance of Women's
Involvement
in Cosmetic Surgery
One: Introduction
Cosmetic surgery is an area around which there has been a great deal
of controversial yet interesting debate. Within the last decade, cosmetic surgery has
doubled in Britain and continues to grow in acceptability. It is becoming
as popular here as it is in the States. Cosmetic surgery is available to almost
anyone, with costs ranging from £100 to £10,000. It is no longer stigmatized, as it is
considered to be a perfectly valid method of beautification. This is associated
with the fact that physical appearance is very important in today's society.
Unfortunately, people do judge a book by it's cover, hence cosmetic surgery
is becoming an increasingly attractive option to improve one's looks. The media
constantly offer and advertise the latest 'body' as a consumable and attainable asset
and this has subsequently lead to the mass expansion of the cosmetic surgery
industry. Television programs, magazine articles, the film industry and other forms
of media continually reinforce the notion of the 'ideal' body; a body which is
slim, fit and beautiful. Society places a great deal of pressure on women to conform
to this culturally constructed body type. As a result, many women fell they must
undergo cosmetic surgery to achieve the ideal.
Within this project, I plan to explore the social and cultural significance of
cosmetic surgery, and in particular focus on the moral and ethical issues
that surround it. I plan to concentrate on women's involvement in the industry,
as I personally believe women, more so than men are affected by the beauty system. I
will refer to the work of feminist theorists such as Naomi Wolf, Kathy Morgan, Kathy
Davis, Susan Bordo, Wendy Chapkis and Anne Balsamo, as they have made influential
contributions to this area of study. I also plan to incorporate the theories of
Michel Foucault, as his work has had a huge impact on the understanding of the
sociology of the body.
Several interviews were carried out, with women who have had successful and
unsuccessful cosmetic surgery, as this enabled me to gain first hand knowledge of the
reasons behind their decision to partake in the cosmetic surgery experience. I
was also able to extract a range of contrasting, yet very interesting attitudes, all
of which have enabled me to explore the social and cultural significance of
women's involvement in cosmetic surgery. This particular project was chosen because I
believe cosmetic surgery best exemplifies the impact of culture on the body. It is
also of great interest to me, as cosmetic surgery is a relatively new phenomenon.
Two: The Beauty System
As suggested previously, physical appearance is very important in today's society.
Women, more so than men, are effected by the beauty system, because 'in the
Western culture, beauty is treated as a virtue which is associated with the
female sex' (Davis 1995: 39). Kathy Davis is suggesting that female beauty has been
idealized by society. Women are expected to be beautiful because they are
considered to embody beauty. Hence women believe they must conform to society's
notion of beauty, as it constantly reinforced as their 'role'. Subsequently,
they may undergo cosmetic surgery. This summed up well by Wendy Chapkis: 'The
body beautiful is women's responsibility and authority. She will be valued and
rewarded on the basis of how close she comes to embodying the ideal' (Chapkis
1986: 14).
The 'ideal' body, which Chapkis talks of, is associated with Western notions of
beauty. This is due to the fact that the beauty system has a number of hierarchies
based on race, class, gender and ethnicity. The dominant groups within the system are
white, middle-class males. They are in positions of authority and set up beauty
standards which the remainder of society are expected to conform to. The ideal
female, for example is considered to be tall and slim, with Anglo-Saxon features.
This is a Western model of beauty, which is transmitted around the world
and accepted as the norm. Fashion magazines such as Vogue and Cosmopolitan, for
example, are full of normalizing images of slim, fit and beautiful models, who, it
seems, conform to the ideal beauty standard. These images may have no connection
to most women's lives, but as they are portrayed as the ideal, they strive to attain it,
even if that results in the use of cosmetic surgery. Consequently, it can be
suggested that there is a process of normalization, as implied by Wendy
Chapkis:
'Indeed female beauty is becoming and increasingly standardized quality throughout
the world. A standard so strikingly white, Western and wealthy it is tempting
to conclude there must be a conspiracy afoot' (cited in Jagger1994: 229).
Many feminists fear that the standardization of female beauty will result in global
cultural homogenization which will not only result in the world being a very
boring place, but simultaneously confirm women's subordinate position in
society. Feminists believe women are unable to recognize that by partaking in the
beauty system, they are actively contributing to their own subordination.
Women are lead to believe that by constantly altering the body, they are able to
take control of their bodies, hence their lives, but in fact, they are controlled by
powerful institutions. This sense of oppression is extremely difficult to
avoid, as society places a great deal of pressure on women to conform to various
beauty norms. Women are surrounded by homogenizing images of the female form,
all of which suggest the ideal body is attainable. Consequently, women are prepared
to conform to such images, as it allows them to 'fit' the cultural ideal: and
ideal that patriarchal society promotes and perpetuates.
Naomi Wolf suggests that 'The Beauty Myth' is used as a 'political weapon' and form
of social control to prevent women's advancement in society. She believes women
are victims of ideological manipulation, as they have been made to believe the beauty
myth is associated with the celebration of women, but, in fact, it is connected
to men's institutions and institutional power. 'Women are mere "beauties"
in men's culture, so that culture can be kept male' (1991: 59).
It is understandable, therefore, why many feminists, such as Wolf, believe women are
culturally constructed objects of masculine desire. By conforming to the beauty norms
of patriarchal society, women present themselves for the 'Male Gaze', and by doing,
are placed in a position of subordination. Feminists believe this is a form of
sexual objectification and is used to 'dehumanize' women, as they are placed in
a morally inferior position by men. Kathy Morgan sums this up well: 'Rather than
aspiring to self-determined and women-centered ideals of health or integrity,
women's attractiveness is defined as attractive-to-men, women's eroticism is defined
as either non-existent, pathological or peripheral when it is not directed to
phallic goals' (cited in Jagger 1994: 243).
Davis is suggesting patriarchal society reduces women to the subordinate position of
a sex object, as women have the ability to challenge male authority. Hence society
labels women as the 'Other', 'dangerous' and 'inferior'. Over time these
characteristics are excepted as the norm, because they are asserted with a sense of
authority.
Michel Faucault's theory of control and discipline best illustrates the relationship
between the body and power. He suggests that power is at the root of female
oppression. He believes that the powerful institutions of patriarchal society govern
and control the body, hence the body is produced by and exists in discourse. 'For
Foucault, the body is not only given meaning by discourse, but is wholly
constituted by discourse. In effect, the body vanishes as a biological entity and
becomes instead a socially constituted product which is infinitely malleable
and highly unstable' (Shilling 1993: 74). Foucault believes the body is a
socially constituted phenomenon, which allows it to be controlled by those in power. This
form of power is most effectively exercised through the beauty system, as it ensures
most women will be manipulated.
Many women, however, believe they are not being controlled by the beauty system. They
argue the modification and improvement of their body is vital to their sense
of identity. Chris Shilling, for example, says 'in the affluent West, there is a
tendency for the body to become a project which should be worked at and accomplished as
part of an individual's self-identity it does involve individual's being
conscious of and actively concerned about the management, maintenance and appearance
of their bodies. This involves a practical recognition of the significance of
bodies; both as personal resources and as social symbols which give off messages
about a person's self-identity. In this context, bodies become
malleable entities which can be shaped and honed by the vigilance and hard work of
their owners' (ibid.: 5).
Shilling is suggesting that by investing in the body as a 'project', people are able
to express their sense of identity, and by doing so, they are able to increase
the control they have over their bodies. In this sense, women are not being
oppressed by the beauty system; they are simply taking control.
Cosmetic surgery is one of the best examples to illustrate the process of the body
becoming a project. With so many specific procedures available (see appendix 1),
women have the ability to alter and perfect their bodies, as part of their
self-identity. Kathy Davis sums this up: 'Cosmetic surgery is the cultural product
of modernity and of a consumer which treats the body as a vehicle for
self-expression' (1995: 17).
It is fair to suggest that the beauty system allows women to take control of their
bodies, but by the same token, it is evident that the women are under a great deal
of pressure to conform to society's notion of beauty. It comes as no surprise
then, that women use cosmetic surgery to achieve the ideal body. Many feminists would
argue that cosmetic surgery is oppressive, while others suggest it
actually empowers women. In the following segment I plan to explore these
arguments.
Three: Cosmetic Surgery: Oppression or
Empowerment
As suggested previously, many feminists believe the institutions within the beauty
system, in particular, the cosmetic surgery industry, have a normalizing effect. Some
women may feel they must undergo cosmetic surgery in order to conform to the Western
ideal beauty system. Kathy Davis uses the example of a fifteen-year-old Moroccan girl,
who was teased at school for having "noses like that". She was made to
feel inferior, subordinate and abnormal, and was 'indirectly' forced to have cosmetic
surgery. The surgeon diagnosed her with a new syndrome he named
'inferiority complex due to racial characteristics', which implies Moroccan
girls and women have the ability to be 'cured' of their ethnicity. This angers Davis,
because not only are women under pressure to conform to beauty norms, but
now they are being told ethnic features are a 'disease' which need to be cured
by cosmetic surgery. She says: 'This was medication and racism in Technicolor - under
the knife for the sake of white, Anglo-Saxon beauty. A blatant instance of the
victimization of women through their bodies and of the racialized aspects of such
repression - Women are being instructed that their bodies are unacceptable:
too fat, too thin, too wrinkled, now, too ethnic' (Davis: 2-3).
Davis is suggesting that cosmetic surgery is a form of racism, as it promotes Western
notions of beauty as the ideal beauty, and by doing so, all other beauty
standards are labeled as the 'Other'. It comes as no surprise then, that there has
been an increase in cosmetic surgery procedures in Japan, where women are unhappy
with the shape of their eyes. They believe they are too 'narrow' and too 'ethnic',
hence they undergo cosmetic surgery to widen their eyes, in order to gain a Western
appearance. Kathy Morgan suggests 'what is being created in all of
these instances is not simply beautiful bodies and faces but white, Western,
Anglo-Saxon bodies in a racist, anti-Semitic context' (cited in Jagger 1994: 247).
Morgan, like Davis, is implying that cosmetic surgery may result in the normalization of
female beauty, as 'difference' is transformed into 'sameness'. The examples of
Moroccan and Japanese women's involvement in cosmetic surgery suggest this
process is already underway.
It could be argued however, that by undergoing cosmetic surgery, women are actively
contributing to their own oppression. Kathy Davis says 'women who choose to
have cosmetic surgery do so because they have had the ideological wool pulled
over their eyes. They are cultural dopes' (1995: 57). Davis is suggesting that women
have been manipulated into believing they must conform to society's notion of
beauty, and that cosmetic surgery is the ideal method by which this is achieved. She
believes women have been blinded by the beauty norms and are subsequently placed
in a subordinate position.
As suggested previously, the 'Male Gaze' is intimately connected with women's
subordination. Naomi Wolf, for example, believes 'cosmetic surgery processes the
bodies of women, who make up the vast majority of it's pool, into man-made women'
(1991: 220). She is suggesting that women who undergo cosmetic surgery are conforming
to men's notion of beauty and femininity. A case in point is breast
augmentation. Since breasts are linked to cultural notions about femininity, 'the
rationale for breast surgery is sexual desire and desirability' (idid.: 243).
Hence women become culturally constructed objects of masculine sexual desire.
Their bodies become 'fetishized' for the male gaze, therefore, women are oppressed.
Consequently, Kathy Morgan is unable to comprehend why women place themselves in such
a subordinate position by undergoing cosmetic surgery. There are three
central points to her argument. Firstly, she implies that women who believe they
are creating a new identity are simply conforming to the norms of femininity. She
says perfectly normal women are under the illusion that their bodies
are abnormal, because they do not fit the cultural ideal. They undergo surgery, as it
is considered to be the 'natural' solution to their problems. Hence cosmetic surgery
is an act of conformity, not identity expression.
Secondly, she suggests women who believe cosmetic surgery is a form of empowerment
are actually being exploited, since they are in a state of 'false consciousness'.
Women believe they are free to make their own choices, regarding their bodies,
but, in fact, the choices have already been made by those in power. Hence cosmetic
surgery is a form of domination, not liberation.
Finally, Morgan believes women are unable to defend their decision to undergo
cosmetic surgery, since it is never ethical. Cosmetic surgery can never be regarded
as a positive and acceptable course of action, even though women believe it is, since
the technologies associated with the industry are fundamentally oppressive. Hence
cosmetic surgery is politically incorrect as opposed to a form of freedom.
It is clear that Morgan has a very one-sided view of cosmetic surgery. Her analysis
is radical and conveys a negative and simplified interpretation of
women's involvement in cosmetic surgery. Her theory is based on a feminist
viewpoint she already had and makes assumptions about women who undergo cosmetic
surgery. Kathy Davis says 'these assumptions concern identity, power and morality'
(1995: 168).
Naomi Wolf also believes cosmetic surgery is oppressive. She suggests the female body
is the victim of a process she calls 're-classification'. This process allows the surgeon
to label the female body as inferior and diseased, hence the patient believes the
only 'cure' is cosmetic surgery. Cosmetic surgery is portrayed as a necessity, not a
luxury, which not only normalizes certain procedures, but also
encourages women to legitimize their decision to have surgery.
The cosmetic surgery industry constantly promotes the notion of 'ugliness' as a
disease which can be cured by going under the knife. Women accept cosmetic surgery
as the correct diagnosis, because it is portrayed with a great deal of authority -
the medical profession. Wolf says 'The surgeons' market is imaginary, since there is
nothing wrong with women's faces or bodies that social change won't cure; so the surgeons
depend for their income on warping female self-perception and multiplying female self
hatred' (1991: 232). Wolf is suggesting surgeons rely on cosmetic surgery patients to
survive financial. They do so by taking out full-page advertisements in magazines
(see appendix 2) and portray cosmetic surgery as pleasant and
painless experience. The models that appear in the ads are attractive young
females; they conform to the ideal beauty standard. Women believe they too can have
the perfect body. The Lanark Centre, for example, 'believe in a caring, holistic
approach - ensuring you a complete peace of mind as well as giving you the body you
want'. No prices are included in the ad, implying cosmetic surgeons are
concerned with the 'welfare' of their patients, as opposed to financial gain.
Moreover, the ads portray cosmetic surgery as a cure to the disease of ugliness, hence
women are prepared to undergo surgery. They believe ugliness is not a cosmetic
issue, but an illness. Consequently, more and more women are unsatisfied with
their bodies, and believe they are abnormal. An article featured in Body Beautiful
magazine, for example, coveys the importance of body image in today's society (see
appendix 3). The patient says: 'I really didn't like myself before because society
won't let you love yourself the way you are. The media presents this image that
women should be thin and perfect and if you are different to that image then you are not
considered attractive' She is implying she had cosmetic surgery in order to be
cured of unattractiveness, and to able to conform to society's notion of beauty.
Cosmetic surgery promises every woman an attractive, youthful and socially acceptable
body, hence it comes as no surprise that an increasing number of women
undergo surgery. Kathy Morgan believes 'as a consequence, more and more women will be
labeled "ugly" and "old" in relation to this more select population of
surgically created beautiful faces and bodies that have been contoured and
augmented, lifted and tucked into a state of achieved female excellence' (cited
in Jagger 1994: 250). Morgan is suggesting women who cannot afford, or do not wish to
have cosmetic surgery will be stigmatized for not attempting to achieve the
ideal beauty standard.
Carole Spitzack believes cosmetic surgery is a mechanism of cultural control, which is
achieved by 'inscription', 'surveillance' and 'confession' (cited in Balsamo
1996: 56). She suggests the surgeons eye functions like Foucault's medical gaze,
as it is a disciplinary gaze that 'constructs the female figure as a pathological,
excessive, unruly and potentially threatening of the dominant order' (ibid.).
Spitzack is implying the surgeon uses the medical gaze in order to 'discipline' the female
body. This is achieved by splitting the body into separate parts; for example,
hair, face, breasts, arms and then 'redefining those parts as inherently flawed and
pathological' (ibid.).
Women except their bodies as 'flawed' because the medical profession is regarded to
be authoritative and respectable. Moreover, with the increasing number of
procedures available (see appendix 1), women believe their bodies must be cured by
cosmetic surgery.
Women who refuse to accept the notion of the flawed body also refuse to accept the
notion of a healthy, disease-free body. 'A failure to confess in a clinical setting
is equated with a refusal of health; a preference for disease' (ibid.: 57). Spitzack
is suggesting women have two choices. They can either refuse to have cosmetic
surgery and be labelled as diseased, or they can undergo surgery and be healthy.
The latter appears to be the more attractive option!
Consequently, more and more women have cosmetic surgery, and by doing so, they are
oppressed by those in power. Kathy Morgan sums this up: 'We are coming to know the
knives of and needles of cosmetic surgeons - the knives that promise to sculpt our
bodies, to restore our youth, to create beauty out of what was ugly and ordinary.
What kind of knives are these? Magic knives. Magic knives in a patriarchal context.
Magic knives in a Euro-centric context. Magic knives in a supremacist context' (cited
in Jagger 1994: 224). She is suggesting cosmetic surgery is a form of medical
control, hence oppressive to women.
Other feminists would argue that cosmetic surgery is a form of empowerment, as opposed to
oppression. Kathy Davis, for example, believes women have cosmetic surgery, because
it enables them to become embodied female subjects. Cosmetic surgery is
considered to be an act of liberation, achievement and power. Sometimes, it allows
women to gain a higher social and economic status. Some women, for example, have
found cosmetic surgery can be used as a tool to enhance career prospects (see
appendix 4). Cosmetic surgery enhances women's self-esteem and confidence,
which results in an improved performance in the workplace, hence they may gain
promotion or a pay rise. In this sense, cosmetic surgery does not act as a form of
oppression. It empowers women.
Not all women are blinded by the beauty norms. Many do not believe cosmetic surgery is the
perfect solution to their problems, but simultaneously they understand that we
live in a society where happiness and power comes at a price, albeit a dangerous
and painful one.
A good example to illustrate the empowering qualities of cosmetic surgery, is the
work of French multi-media performance artist, Orlan. Orlan uses cosmetic surgery
to transform her body and to challenge beauty norms. She says: 'My work is not a
stand against cosmetic surgery, but against the standards of beauty, against the
dictates of dominant ideology that impresses itself more and more on
feminine (as well as masculine) flesh' (cited in McCorquodale 1996: 91).
Orlan refuses to be controlled by patriarchal society, hence she uses cosmetic
surgery to construct her own unique identity, which not only allows her to gain freedom,
but also ensures distance from social conformity. The operations allow her to
become the 'Other'; for example, she has had two 'demonic' horn-like 'bumps'
(these implants are usually used for checks) implanted on her forehead. She is
also planning to have an operation which will give her a nose 'as long as technically
possible' (ibid.: 38).
She uses her body as a means to protest. Ironically, she uses the normalizing
procedures of cosmetic surgery to oppose, rather than conform to the norms
of society.
Many people would argue that by mutilating herself to such an extent, Orlan is
actually raising questions about the status of the body in society. Her body deviates
so far from the norms of society, that it is no longer considered to be
'natural'. Hence, I now plan to explore the role of cosmetic surgery in producing the
'unnatural' body.
Four: What is the Natural Body?
Many theorists believe cosmetic surgery raises questions about the natural body.
Susan Bordo, for example, says 'gradually, but surely, a technology that was first
aimed at the replacement of malfunctioning parts, has generated an industry and
an ideology fuelled by fantasies of rearranging, transforming and correcting the
ideology of limitless improvement and change, defying the historicity, the
morality, and indeed, the very materiality of the body'(1993: 245). Bordo is suggesting
cosmetic surgery transforms the natural body into a 'machine'.
Chris Shilling believes technological advances in cosmetic surgery result in the
uncertainty about the material constitutes of the body. This is summed up well by
the quote below: 'A science facilitates greater degrees if intervention into the
body, it de-stabilizes our knowledge of what bodies are and runs ahead of our ability
to make moral judgments about how far science should be allowed to reconstruct the
body' (1993: 4). Shilling is suggesting the possibilities to radically reconstruct
the body are now endless; for example cosmetic surgery has allowed pop star Michael
Jackson to change the color of his skin. By altering his appearance
so dramatically, Michael Jackson has changed the boundaries of the human body. All
limits have broken down.
Naomi Wolf believes such advances in cosmetic surgery could have a devastating impact on
women. She says: 'Cosmetic surgery changes one forever, the mind as well as the body.
If we don't start to speak of it as serious, the millennium of the man-made woman
will be upon us, and we will have had no choice' (1991: 257). Wolf implies cosmetic
surgery will continue to radically alter the limits of the body, moreover, it
will 'de-stabilize' the social value of the female body. She believes there will
be a mass production of the artificial, robot-like female body. She refers to this body as
the 'man-made' body, by which she suggests women will continue to be socially
constructed for the male gaze. Wolf fears the man-made female body will become the
norm, hence women will try to conform to it, as suggested by the
quote below:
'Whatever the future threatens, we can be fairly sure
of this: Women in our "raw" or "natural" state will
continue to be shifted from category "woman" to category
"ugly" and shamed into an assembly-line physical identity'
(ibid.: 269).
Naomi Wolf's analysis of cosmetic surgery is very radical. She has an extremely
pessimistic view of the future and fails to take into those women, such as
Orlan, who
undergo cosmetic surgery as a form of empowerment and self-identity.
Furthermore, the notion of the man-made woman is far too futuristic. Not all women
will agree to conform to a universal beauty standard, hence differences will
still remain.
Five: Interviews
Read Marianne's,
of Yes They're Fake!, Questionnaire Responses
As a vital element of research, several interviews were carried out with women who
have had cosmetic surgery. The interviews allowed me to gain first hand
knowledge of women's involvement in cosmetic surgery, as well as a range of
interesting facts and opinions.
I also planned to interview a surgeon or consultant, as this would provide me with an
'expert' perspective on women's involvement in cosmetic surgery. However,
the surgeons and consultants I had contacted were either 'too busy' or unwilling
to have an interview. As a result, I thought it would be interesting to experience
a consultation myself, as this would allow an 'indirect'
interview.
I chose to have my consultation at 'Transform', as it is the largest cosmetic
surgery group in the United Kingdom. Upon arrival, I was directed towards what can
only be described as a tasteless and 'tacky' waiting room. Framed tabloid
newspaper and magazine articles surround the room, and carefully filed 'Thank You'
cards from past patients can be found on tables. These tactics have been used,
as it reassures the patient of the expertise and caring nature of Transform.
Moreover, Transform is 'selling' cosmetic surgery as a pleasant, painless experience,
as suggested previously.
The actual consultation was unusual. The patient coordinator, also the clinic
manager, did not request any personal or psychological information concerning my
enquiry into breast augmentation. Instead, the patient coordinator discussed only the
operation and cost of the procedure! In the Transform brochure, however, prospective
patients are constantly reminded of the importance of consultations in 'establishing
the patients exact needs' (see appendix 5).
The patient coordinator continually reminded me of the expertise of the Transform
surgeons, and placed a great deal of emphasis on how easy and safe surgery is. She
told me not to worry, because if anything does go wrong, corrective surgery and
aftercare is completely free! As a result, I believe patients are more likely to
undergo cosmetic surgery, as the feel they have nothing to loose. As suggested
by feminists, such as Kathy Morgan and Naomi Wolf, this is associated with the
'selling' of cosmetic surgery.
Overall, Transform is portrayed as a respectable and pleasant company, as suggested
by the caring images within the brochure (see appendix 5). Within two days, however,
I received written conformation of my 'suitability' for cosmetic surgery, even though
there was no mention of this during the consultation, and was notified of the
costs. This not only suggests companies, such as Transform are preoccupied with
profit, but also illustrates the ease with which women are able to undergo cosmetic
surgery - whether suitable candidates or not!
It must be remembered, however, that not all consultations are like those performed
at Transform. During my second interview, with 20 year old student, Kate Ingram, I
was constantly informed of the caring nature of her surgeon and clinic staff (see
appendix 6 for full interview). Kate said her consultation was completely different
to the consultation I had experienced at Transform; for example the surgeon
asked her questions about her lifestyle, discussed her reasons for wanting to have
breast augmentation and never once mentioned money. Kate could not praise him
enough. She says "He was happy I had thought it through enough. He was
excellent. And in hospital he was very very good I felt a part of the family. I could
talk to my surgeon about anything medical. I had my own nurse at hospital, who I can
phone up anytime. I'm on first name terms with the surgeon's PA - I'm good
friends with her now".
Kate had a very pleasant experience with cosmetic surgery, but feminists, such as
Kathy Morgan would argue that the kindness and concerned nature of surgeons, such as
Dr. Kitos, is just a ploy to encourage women to undergo cosmetic surgery, hence
multiply their oppression.
Kate assured me that cosmetic surgery has not altered her personality, as she has
always been self-confident and out-going. She also implies cosmetic surgery was
a personal decision, rather than a result of pressure from society. She says:
"I haven't changed at all. I've go no more self-confidence now than I did before
I notice men look at my breasts a lot more, but that's just men. But I had it
done for me. I am happy. I don't think that's got anything to do with anyone else,
It's completed me". Kate suggests she was not pressured to conform to
society's beauty norms, although she does recognize that many women are.
Later, Kate admits, "subconsciously I must have felt my breasts were
unacceptable", and by doing so, implies that she was, in fact, affected by the
pressures society's places on women to conform to ideal beauty standard.
The third interview was carried out via e-mail, as Marianne, my interviewee, lives in
the United States. Read Marianne's, of
Yes They're Fake!, Questionnaire Responses. Marianne has had breast augmentation,
rhinoplasty (nose surgery) and lip augmentation. Although the interview was not in
person, I received a great deal of interesting information, especially as
Marianne has had several procedures, and lives in California, where cosmetic surgery
is "pretty much second nature".
Marianne is very happy with her cosmetic surgery and says
"it has increased my self-esteem a ton". Unlike Kate, however, she
recognizes that her decision to undergo cosmetic surgery was a direct result of the
pressure placed on women to conform to society's notion of beauty; for example, she
believes "men simply have too high a standard for women, we are forced to live up
to some overly skinny waif chic making millions a year to be that thin".
Marianne also implies cosmetic surgery enabled her to be portrayed for the male gaze;
for example, she reveals "I thought I could get round breasts like what I saw
men liking in Playboy magazine. I wanted that 'look'". Marianne suggests
images such as those portrayed in Playboy influence women to have cosmetic surgery, as
they are portrayed as ideal female images. These are, images that men consider
to be the ideal and are very rarely associated with reality. Women, however, are expected
to conform to this ideal. She further notes that, "My male counterpart likes
this ideal type of women, he is attracted to it, how can I not want to look like
those other women?"
Although feminists such as Kathy Morgan consider cosmetic surgery to be an act of
oppression, Marianne believes "it IS a form of power", and by doing so, she
reinforces Kathy Davis' theory of empowerment. Marianne is very aware of the
pressures placed on women to conform to an ideal beauty standard, but simultaneously,
recognizes that surgery is sometimes vital to one's sense self-confidence
and acceptance.
Kate and Marianne have had very successful cosmetic surgery. It must be remembered
that this is not always the case. Sometimes surgery can be disastrous, resulting
in physical disfigurement and psychological trauma. Hence I decided to interview
Kim (last name withheld by request), as she has had unsuccessful cosmetic surgery. I was
able to make comparisons with the successful surgeries of Kate and Marianne, as well
as gain first hand knowledge of unsuccessful surgery.
The interview was again, carried out by e-mail. Kim has had five procedures, all of
which were unsuccessful (see appendix 8 for full questionnaire). She has had a
very traumatic experience, however, she was willing to give me as much
information as possible, as she feels it is very important to educate people about
the risks involved in cosmetic surgery. She is also a founding member of an organization known as (*withheld by request*).
As a consequence of her surgery, Kim now suffers from Post Traumatic Shock Disorder
and believes it is " a rampant and far too often result of cosmetic surgery - when
this stuff goes wrong, it is absolutely devastating. It's hard to fathom why,
but it's true. The victims of bad surgery always feel beyond raped. We are, also like
rape victims, blamed for the crime".
She blames "the greed and carelessness of the surgeon entirely" as "he
was and is extremely neglectful". This offers a complete contrast to Kate's
attitude towards her surgeon - she could not praise him enough. It
is understandable, however, that Kim feels so much anger towards the surgeon,
because cosmetic surgery has been "the single most destructive occurrence" in
her life. She also believes "this cosmetic surgery phenomenon is the
worst thing that has happened to Western culture since the Holocaust. It is
completely out of control".
Kim expresses her anger towards the cosmetic surgery industry, and goes on to say:
"I have lost faith in the practice of medicine altogether. I believe that
the surgeons who perform cosmetic surgery are not acting as doctors, but as
business people with something to sell. If they were indeed true doctors, they would try
to heal the sickness that induces the desire for cosmetic surgery. By performing
this surgery, they are not trying to heal the sickness, but are instead promoting
it"
Kim suggests the desire for cosmetic surgery is actually a sickness, which needs to
be addressed, even cured, but the business man-like role of the surgeon not only
prevents this, but actively promotes the notion of a 'sick' body. Kim's
interpretation of the role of the surgeon is very similar to Naomi Wolf's notion of
're-classification'. As suggested previously, Wolf believes the
surgeon 're-classifies' the female body as inferior and diseased, and promotes
cosmetic surgery as the cure. In this sense, it is evident that Kim is aware of the
oppressive positions women are placed in by surgeons. However, this
is only as a result of unsuccessful surgery.
The women I interviewed conveyed themselves as competent decision makers. They seem
fully aware of the beauty norms that surround them, and recognize that women are under
a great deal of pressure to conform to them. Feminists would consider Kate and
Marianne's use of cosmetic surgery, as an act of conformity, oppression and subordination.
The results of the interviews, however, suggest that both women are extremely pleased
with the results of their surgery, and in Marianne's case, it is even a form of
empowerment. There is no sense of oppression at all.
Kim's experience with cosmetic surgery, however, illustrates the need for regulation,
in order to protect patients. Although the results of her surgery
were physically and mentally distressing, there have been positive outcomes. Kim
is now aware of the techniques used by surgeons (such as those described by feminists) in
order to 'sell' cosmetic surgery, hence increase women's oppression. She also
attempts to raise awareness about the risks and dangers involved in cosmetic surgery.
Six: Conclusion
I have come to realize that cosmetic surgery is morally problematic, but simultaneously,
it is desirable and necessary. Cosmetic surgery is a complex and dilemmatic situation
for women: 'problem and solution, oppression and liberation' (Davis 1995: 67) all in
one.
Many feminists would argue it is difficult to take a stand against cosmetic surgery,
without condemning the women who take part in the practice. Prior to this study, I
had a very narrow-minded view of cosmetic surgery. I had associated it with
middle-class American housewives, as the media conveys cosmetic surgery as a typically
American phenomenon. I thought these women had nothing better to do than spend money
on extremely dangerous procedures, beautifying themselves. My opinion has since
changed. I have come to realize that not all women who undergo cosmetic surgery
are 'cultural dopes'. Besides, women who wear make-up, and dress in the latest
fashions are no more oppressed than those who have surgery, as it has been
made clear, by a number of feminists, that everyone is a victim of the beauty
system.
Sometimes cosmetic surgery is vital to one's sense of self-identity, hence I believe
feminists such as Kathy Morgan and Naomi Wolf have a very one-sided analysis
of women's involvement in cosmetic surgery. Interviews with Kate and Marianne
suggest cosmetic surgery can be a very successful, even empowering experience. In
this sense I do not consider cosmetic surgery to be oppressive. I strongly
believe, however, that the area of cosmetic surgery should be regulated. Patients
such as Kim need to be protected from the increasing number of 'Cowboy' surgeons who
are now in circulation.
Cosmetic surgery is a very complex and relatively new area of study, hence I believe
it is far to simple to suggest it oppresses women, or that it is a form of
empowerment. There are many social and cultural aspects to take into account;
for example, the individual woman's attitudes, beliefs, values and social
surroundings. I also recognize that this topic is still open for discussion. No doubt
it will be for a very long time.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Balsamo, A. (1996) Technologies of the Gendered Body (Duke University Press)
Bordo, S. (1993) Unbearable Weight (University of California Press)
Chapkis, W. (1986) Beauty Secrets: Women and the Politics of Appearance (Women's Press)
Davis, K. (1995) Reshaping The Female Body: The Dilemma of Cosmetic Surgery (Routledge)
Jagger, A. M. (ed.) (1994) Living With Contradictions: Controversies in Feminist Social
Ethics (Westview Press)
McCorquodale, D. (ed.) (1996) Orlan: This Is My Body - This Is My Software (London: Black
Dog)
Shilling, C. (1993) The Body and Social Theory (Sage)
Wolf, N. (1991) The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used Against Women (Vintage)
PATEL N.
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